The Bārhaspatyas say that there are only two sciences: the science of business and the science of government, and the triple Vedas are merely an abridgment for a man experienced in wordly affairs.
But Kautilya holds that these four and only these four are the sciences (natural and logical science, the triple Vedas, the science of business, the science of government); wherefore it is from these sciences that all that concerns righteousness and wealth is learnt, therefore they are so called.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.2:4-9
… my teacher says, “Whoever desires the progress of the world shall ever hold the sceptre raised. Never can there be a better instrument than the sceptre to bring people under control.”
“No,” says Kautilya, “for whoever imposes severe punishment becomes repulsive to the people; while he who awards mild punishment becomes contemptible. But whoever imposes punishment as deserved becomes respectable.”
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.4:6-10
But when the law of punishment is kept in abeyance, it gives rise to such disorder as is implied in the proverb of fishes; for in the absence of a magistrate, the strong will swallow the weak; but under his protection, the weak resist the strong.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.4:13-15
So says Kautilya, that artha and artha alone is important, in as much as dharma and kāma depend upon artha for their realisation.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.7:6-7
He may enjoy in an equal degree the three pursuits of life: virtue, wealth, and desire, which are inter-dependent upon each other. Any one of these three, when enjoyed to an excess, hurts not only the other two, but also itself.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.7:4-5
Of divided rule and foreign rule, divided rule, or rule of a country by two kings, perishes owing to mutual hatred, partiality and rivalry. My teacher says that foreign rule which depends upon its winning the affection of the people is for the enjoyment of others in its own condition.
No, says Kauṭilya: divided rule between father and son or between two brothers has similar consequences and is under the clutches of a minister. But foreign rule brought into existence by seizing the country from its king still alive thinks that the country is not its own, impoverishes it and carries off its wealth, or treats it as a commercial article; and when the country ceases to love it, it retires, abandoning the country.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 8.2:5-8
My teacher says that in an open war, both sides suffer by sustaining a heavy loss of men and money; and that even the king who wins a victory will appear as defeated in consequence of the loss of men and money. No, says Kautilya, even at considerable loss of men and money, the destruction of an enemy is desirable.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.13:31-33
When a king of poor resources is attacked by a powerful enemy, he should surrender himself together with his sons to the enemy and live like a reed (in the midst of a current of water).
Bhāradvāja says that he who surrenders himself to the strong, bows down before Indra (the god of rain).
But Viśālākṣa says that a weak king should rather fight with all his resources, for bravery destroys all troubles; fighting is the natural duty of a kṣatriya, no matter whether he achieves victory or sustains defeat in battle.
No, says Kauṭilya: he who bows down to all like a crab on the riverbank lives in despair; whoever goes with his small army to fight perishes like a man attempting to cross the sea without a boat. Hence, a weak king should either seek the protection of a powerful king or maintain himself in an impregnable fort.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 12.1:1-9
Whoever possesses enough experience of the world and its affairs may, through the influence of an interested friend, seek the favour of a king who is endowed with amiable qualities and is possessed of all the elements of sovereignty. He may court the favour of any king provided he thinks: Just as I am in need of a patron, so is this king possessed of a taste for good advice and is of amiable character. He may even court the favour of such a king as is poor and destitute of the elements of sovereignty, but never, of such a one as is of a depraved character: whoever, as a king, is destitute of good temper and amiable character cannot, by reason of his habitual hatred of the science of polity and an inborn proclivity to evil ways, maintain his sovereignty, though he is possessed of immense sovereign power.
Having obtained admittance to an amiable king, he shall give the king instructions in sciences. Absence of contradiction from the king will render his position secure. When his opinion is sought about present or future schemes needing much thought and consideration, he may boldly and sensibly, and with no fear of contradiction from the assembly of ministers, pronounce his opinion so as to be in harmony with the principles of righteousness and economy. When required, he may answer questions on points of righteousness and economy.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.4:1-7
All kinds of administrative measures are preceded by deliberations in a well-formed council. The subject matter of a council shall be entirely secret and deliberations in it shall be so carried that even birds cannot see them; for it is said that the secrecy of counsels was divulged by parrots, minas, dogs and other low creatures of mean birth. Hence without providing himself with sufficient safeguard against disclosure, he shall never enter into deliberations in a council.
Whoever discloses counsels shall be torn to pieces.
The disclosure of counsels may be detected by observing changes in the attitude and countenance of envoys, ministers, and masters. Change in conduct is change in attitude; and observation of physical appearance is countenance.
Maintenance of the secrecy of a council-matter, and keeping guard over officers that have taken part in the deliberation over it (shall be strictly observed) till the time of starting the work so considered approaches.
Carelessness, intoxication, sleep-talking, love and other evil habits of councillors are the causes of the betrayal of counsels.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.15:2-12
Hence by overthrowing the aggregate of the six vices, [a saintly king] shall restrain the organs of sense; acquire wisdom by keeping company with the aged; see through his spies; establish safety and security by being ever active; maintain his subjects in the observance of their respective duties by exercising authority; keep up his personal discipline by receiving lessons in the sciences; and endear himself to the people by bringing them in contact with wealth and doing good to them.
Thus with his organs of sense under his control, he shall keep away from hurting the women and property of others; avoid not only lustfulness, even in dream, but also falsehood, haughtiness, and evil proclivities; and keep away from unrighteous and uneconomical transactions.
Not violating righteousness and economy, he shall enjoy his desires. He shall never be devoid of happiness. He may enjoy in an equal degree the three pursuits of life: righteousness, wealth, and desire, which are inter-dependent upon each other. Any one of these three, when enjoyed to an excess, hurts not only the other two, but also itself.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.7:1-5
It is said that a woman making love of her own initiative will, when discarded, curse the man.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.6:30
Self-protection shall be the first and constant thought of a wise man; for the life of a man under the service of a king is aptly compared to life in fire; whereas fire burns a part or the whole of the body, if at all, the king has the power either to destroy or to advance the whole family, consisting of sons and wives, of his servants.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.4:16-17
Spies disguised as ascetics with shaved head or braided hair and pretending to be the worshippers of the god Saṃkarṣaṇa, may mix their sacrificial beverage with the juice of the madana plant (and give it to the cowherds), and carry off the cattle.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3:54
Ravana, unwilling under the influence of vanity to restore a stranger's wife; Duryodhana, to part with a portion of his kingdom; Dambhodbhava and Arjuna of the Haihaya dynasty being so haughty as to despise all people; Vatapi in his attempt under the influence of overjoy to attack Agastya, as well as the Vṛṣṇi corporation in their attempt against Dvaipayana.
Thus these and other several kings, falling a prey to the aggregate of the six enemies and having failed to restrain their organs of sense, perished together with their kingdom and relations. Having driven out the aggregate of the six enemies, Ambarisha of the Jamadagnya dynasty, famous for his restraint over the senses long enjoyed the earth, as did Nabhaga.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.6:5-12
He shall construct his own residential palace after the model of his treasury-house; or he may have his residential abode in the centre of the delusive chamber.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1:20:2
He shall construct his own residential palace after the model of his treasury-house; or he may have his residential abode in the centre of the chamber of illusions, provided with secret passages made into the walls; or in an underground chamber provided with the figures of goddesses and of altars (chaitya) carved on the wooden door-frame, and connected with many underground passages for exit; or in an upper storey provided with a staircase hidden in a wall, with a passage for exit made in a hollow pillar, the whole building being so constructed with mechanical contrivance as to be caused to fall down when necessary.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.20:2
Weapons and armour shall be entered into the armoury only after they are marked with the king's seal. Persons with weapons shall not be allowed to move anywhere unless they are permitted by a passport. When weapons are either lost or spoilt, the superintendent shall pay double their value; an account of the weapons that are destroyed shall be kept up. Boundary-guards shall take away the weapons and armour possessed by caravans unless the latter are provided with a passport to travel with weapons.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.3:37-41
Proclamation of his association with gods is as follows: holding conversation with, and worshipping, the spies who pretend to be the gods of fire or altar when through a tunnel they come to stand in the midst of fire, altar, or in the interior of a hollow image; holding conversation with, and worshipping, the spies who rise up from water and pretend to be the Nāga gods and goddesses; placing under water at night a mass of sea-foam mixed with burning oil, and exhibiting it as the spontaneous outbreak of fire, when it is burning in a line; sitting on a raft in water, which is secretly fastened by a rope to a rock; such magical performance in water as is usually done at night by bands of magicians, using the sack of abdomen or womb of water animals to hide the head and the nose, and applying to the nose the oil, prepared from the entrails of red spotted deer and the serum of the flesh of the crab, crocodile, porpoise and otter; holding conversation, as though with women of Varuna or of Nāga when they are performing magical tricks in water; and sending out volumes of smoke from the mouth on occasions of anger.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.1:3-6
Astrologers, sooth-sayers, horologists, story-tellers and sign-readers, together with spies and their disciples, inclusive of those who have witnessed the wonderful performances of the conqueror should give wide publicity to the power of the king to associate with gods throughout his territory. Likewise in foreign countries, they should spread the news of gods appearing before the conqueror and of his having received from heaven weapons and treasure. Those who are well versed in horary and astrology and the science of omens should proclaim abroad that the conqueror is a successful expert in explaining the indications of dreams and in understanding the language of beasts and birds. They should not only attribute the contrary to his enemy, but also show to the enemy's people the shower of firebrand with the noise of divine drums on the day of the birth-star of the enemy.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.1:7-10
Astrologers and other followers of the king should infuse spirit into his army by pointing out the impregnable nature of the array of his army, his power to associate with gods, and his omniscience; and they should at the same time frighten the enemy.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 10.3:32-33
Proclamation of his omniscience is as follows: rejection of his chief officers when their secret domestic and other private affairs are known; revealing the names of traitors after receiving information from spies specially employed to find out such men; pointing out the impolitic aspect of any course of action suggested to him; and pretensions to the knowledge of foreign affairs by means of his power to read omens and signs invisible to others when information about foreign affairs is just received through a domestic pigeon which has brought a sealed letter.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.1:2
High birth, godliness, heroism, seeing through the eyes of elders, virtue, truthfulness, non-contradiction, gratefulness, high goals, enthusiasm, non-procrastination, power, resolute mind, an assembly of viceless ministers, a taste for discipline; these are the qualities of an inviting nature.
Inquiry, hearing, perception, retention in memory, reflection, deliberation, inference and steadfast adherence to conclusions are the qualities of the intellect.
Valour, determination of purpose, quickness, and probity are the aspects of enthusiasm.
Sharp intellect, strong memory, keen mind, energy, power, training in all the arts, vicelessness, justice, dignity, preparedness, foresight, readiness to avail himself of afforded opportunities in respect of place, time, and manly efforts, cleverness to discern the cause for peace treaty or war, capacity to make jokes without loss of dignity or secrecy, never brow-beating and casting haughty and stern looks, freedom from passion, anger, greed, obstinacy, fickleness, haste and back-biting habits, a smiling demeanour, observance of elders’ customs; such is the nature of self-possession.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 6.1:2-6
When the profit accruing to kings under an agreement, whether they be of equal, inferior, or superior power, is equal to all, that agreement is termed peace; when unequal, it is termed defeat. Such is the nature of peace and war.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.8:34
Negligence to rescue a person under the clutches of a tiger shall be punished with a fine of 12 paṇas. Similar sum of money shall be given as a reward to him who kills a tiger.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 4.3:30-32
The king, the minister, the country, the fort, the treasury, the army and the ally are the elements of sovereignty.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 6.1
Which is better of the two, a small mine of valuable yield, or a big mine productive of commodities of inferior value? My teacher says that the former is better inasmuch as valuable products, such as diamonds, precious stones, pearls, corals, gold and silver, can swallow vast quantities of inferior commodities.
Not so, says Kautilya, for there is the possibility of purchasing valuable commodities by a mass of accumulated articles of inferior value, collected from a vast and longstanding mine of inferior commodities.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.12:14-16
Which is better, a friend of vast population, or a friend of immense gold? My teacher says that a friend of vast population is better inasmuch as such a friend will be of imposing power and can, when he rises up, accomplish any work undertaken. Not so, says Kautilya: a friend possessing immense gold is better; for possession of gold is ever desirable; but an army is not always required. Moreover armies and other desired objects can be purchased for gold.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.9:26-30
Which is better, a friend possessing gold, or a friend possessing vast territory? My teacher says that a friend possessing gold can stand any heavy expenditure made with discretion. Not so, says Kautilya: for it has already been stated that both friends and gold can be acquired by means of territory. Hence a friend of vast territory is far better.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.9:31-34
Hence one should recruit one’s army, reflecting that “such is the army of my enemy; and this is my army to oppose it.” Considering the strength of the constituents of one’s own quadripartite army, one should recruit men to it so as to oppose an enemy’s army successfully.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 9.2:26-30
Loss of trained men is what is called kshaya. Diminution of gold and grains is loss of wealth. When the expected profit overweighs both these; then one should march (against an enemy).
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 9.4:1-3
When a profit is easily acquired and secured without the necessity of returning it to others, it is termed “receivable”; that which is of the reverse nature is “repayable”; whoever goes to receive a repayable profit or enjoys such a profit, is destroyed.
However, if one thinks that “by taking a repayable profit I shall cause my enemy’s treasury, army, and other defensive resources to dwindle; I shall exploit to impoverishment the mines, timber and elephant forests, irrigational works and roads of traffic of my enemy; I shall impoverish his subjects, or cause them to migrate, or conspire against him; when they are reduced to this condition, my enemy inflames their hatred (by punishing them); or I shall set my enemy against another enemy; my enemy will give up his hopes and run away to one who has some blood-relationship with him; or having improved his lands, I shall return them to him, and when he is thus brought to ascendancy, he will be a lasting friend of mine,” then he may take even a repayable profit.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 9.4:5-8
My teacher says that of a sportive king and a sportive country, a sportive country is always ruinous to the results of work, whereas a sportive king is beneficial to artisans, carpenters, musicians, buffoons and traders.
No, says Kautilya, a sportive country, taking to sports for relaxation from labour, causes only a trifling loss; and after enjoyment, it resumes work, whereas a sportive king causes oppression by showing indulgence to his courtiers, by seizing and begging, and by obstructing work in the manufactories.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 8.4:21-23
Strength is of three kinds: power of deliberation is intellectual strength; the possession of a prosperous treasury and a strong army is the strength of sovereignty; and martial power is physical strength.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 6.2:33
With regard to a wise and a brave prince, a wise prince, even if timid, is characterized with capacity for intellectual works; and a brave prince even if not wise, possesses warlike spirit. So far as warlike spirit is concerned, a wise prince overreaches a brave one just as a hunter does an elephant.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.17
It is no crime for barbarians to sell or mortgage the life of their own offspring. But never shall an Ārya be subjected to slavery.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.13:3-4
Any person who has given a girl in marriage without announcing her guilt of having lain with another man shall not only be punished with a fine of 96 paṇas, but also be made to return any fees and bride-price. Any person receiving a girl in marriage without announcing the blemishes of the bridegroom shall not only pay double the above fine, but also forfeit the fees and bride-price he paid for the bride.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.15:14-15.
Marriage precedes the other calls of life.
- The giving in marriage of a maiden well-adorned is called Brahma marriage.
- The joint-performance of sacred duties by a man and a woman is known as Prājāpatya marriage.
- The giving in marriage of a maiden for a couple of cows is called Arśa marriage.
- The giving in marriage of a maiden to an officiating priest in a sacrifice is called Daiva marriage.
- The voluntary union of a maiden with her lover is called Gandharva marriage.
- Giving a maiden after receiving plenty of wealth is termed Asura marriage.
- The abduction of a maiden is called Rākṣasa marriage.
- The abduction of a maiden while she is asleep and in intoxication is called Paiśāca marraige.
Of these, the first four are ancestral customs of old and are valid on their being approved of by the father.
The rest (Arśa, Asura) are to be sanctioned by both the father and the mother, for:
- It is they that receive the price paid by the bridegroom for their daughter.
- In case of the absence by death of either the father or the mother, the survivor will receive the price.
- If both of them are dead, the maiden herself shall receive it.
Any kind of marriage is approvable if it pleases all those who are concerned in it.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.2:1-13
My teacher says that the seed sown in the field of another shall belong to the owner of that field. Others hold that the mother being only the receptacle for the seed, the child must belong to him from whose seed it is born. Kautilya says that it must belong to both the living parents.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.7:1-3
Chapter summary: Army arrays – staff, snake, circle, detached order; counter-arrays
According to Brihaspati, an array is comprised of the front and reserve, two wings, and two flanks. The principal arrays – staff, snake, circle, detached order – are varieties of the above two forms consisting of wings, flanks and front.
Stationing the army so as to stand abreast, is called a Staff array.
Stationing the army in a line so that one may follow the other, is called a Snake array.
Stationing the army so as to face all the directions, is called a Circle array.
Detached arrangement of the army into small independent units is called a Detached Order array.
A Staff array has equal strength on its wings, flanks and front.
It is called a Breaking-the-enemy-array array when its flanks are made to project in front.
It is called a Firm array when its wings and flanks are stretched back.
It is called an Irresistible array when its wings are lengthened.
It is called an Eagle array when, having formed the wings, the front is made to bulge out.
The reverse-form arrangements of the four arrays above are respectively called a Bow, a Centre of a bow, a Hold, and a Stronghold array.
It is called a Victory array when the wings are arrayed like a bow.
It is called a Conqueror array when the front is projected.
It is called a Big Ear array when its flanks and wings are formed like a staff.
It is called a Vast Victory array when its front made twice as strong as a Conqueror array.
It is called an Army-Face array when it has its wings stretched forward.
The reverse-form arrangement of an Army-Face array is called a Fish-Face array.
It is called a Pin array when one constituent of the army is made to stand behind the other.
A Pin array comprised of two lines or four lines is known as an Aggregate or Invincible array respectively.
These are the varieties of the Staff array.
A Snake array has its wings and front capable of turning.
It is called a Serpentine or Cow-urine array when its wings, flank and front are of unequal depth.
It is called a Cart array when it consists of two lines in front and has its wings arranged as in the staff-like array.
The reverse-form arrangement of a Cart array is called a Crocodile array.
A Cart array consisting of elephants, horses and chariots is called a Swift World Conquest array.
These are the varieties of the Snake array.
A Circle array’s varieties are the All-auspicious, One-of-eight-divisions and Victory arrays.
A Detached order array has its wings, flanks and front stationed apart.
It is called a Diamond or Alligator array when five divisions of the army are arranged in detached order.
It is called a Park or Crow’s foot array when four divisions of the army are arranged in detached order.
It is called a Half-moon or Crab array when three divisions of the army are arranged in detached order.
These are the varieties of the array in detached order.
An array is called Auspicious if its chariots form the front, elephants the wings, and horses the rear.
An array is called Immovable If infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants stand one behind the other.
An array is called Invincible if elephants, horses, chariots and infantry stand in order one behind the other.
Of these, the conqueror should assail the Breaking-the-enemy-array array with the Firm array, the Firm array with the Irresistible array, the Eagle array with the Bow array, the Hold Array with the Stronghold array, the Victory array with the Conqueror array, the Big Ear array with the Vast Victory array, the Swift World Conquest array with the All-auspicious array, and all kinds of arrays with the Invincible array.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 10.6:1-43
If a chief among the neighbouring kings seems to give trouble, the minister may invite him, saying "come here and I shall make thee king," and then put him to death.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.6:16
The conqueror may dismiss a confidential chief of a corporation. The chief may go over to the enemy as a friend and offer to supply him with recruits and other help collected from the conqueror's territory or followed by a band of spies — and please the enemy by destroying a disloyal village or a regiment or an ally of the conqueror — and by sending as a present the elephants, horses, and disaffected persons of the conqueror's army or of the latter's ally (…)
And when he has gained their confidence, he may send them down to the conqueror to be routed down on the occasion of a farcical attempt to capture elephants or wild tribes.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3:1-6
A spy, under the guise of an astrologer, may describe to a chief the destiny of a maiden who is at the point of being married to another, and say: “This man’s daughter deserves to be the wife of a king, and will bring forth a son destined to be a king; purchase her with all your wealth, or seize her by force.” When it is not possible to secure her, spies should enrage the parties; but when she is secured quarrel will necessarily ensue.
A mendicant woman may tell a chief who is fond of his wife: “This (another) chief, proud of his youth, has sent me to entice your wife; being afraid of him, I have taken with me his letter and jewellery (for your wife); your wife is free from sin; secret steps should be taken against him; and I am very anxious (about your success).”
Thus in these and other kinds of brawls which have originated of themselves or which have been brought about by spies, the conqueror should help the inferior party with men and money and set them against the wicked or cause them to migrate (to other parts of the country).
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 11.1:49-53
When the enemy is desirous of taking possession of the territory of the conqueror’s friend, then the conqueror may, under the pretence of compliance, supply the enemy with army. Then, having entered into a secret concert with the friend, the conqueror may pretend to be under troubles and allow himself to be attacked by the enemy combined with the neglected friend. Then, hemmed from two sides, the enemy may be killed or captured alive to distribute his territory among the conqueror and his friend.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3
The conqueror may tell his enemy: “A chief with a powerful army means to offend us, so let us combine and put him down; you may take possession of his treasury or territory.” When the enemy agrees to the proposal and comes out honoured by the conqueror, he may be slain in a tumult or in an open battle with the chief (in concert with the conqueror).
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3
Whoever is rising in power may break the agreement of peace.
Spies previously set about to work under the enemy and attend on the hostaged prince – carpenters, artisans, other spies – dancers, actors, singers, instrument-players, buffoons, court-bards, swimmers, magicians – prostitutes and women spies under the garb of wives – with the unrestricted right to enter, stay at and leave the palace at any time, may take the prince away at night through and underground tunnel dug for the purpose – or placing him in a garb carrying or concealed under pipes, utensils vessels, clothes, beds, seats or other articles, by workers such as – cooks, confectioners, bathing servants, servants who carry conveyances, who make the bed, who make toilets, who dress, who procure water, who procure items in the dark – or he may be disguised as such a servant.
Or he may pretend to be in communion with the god Varuna in a reservoir through a tunnel at night while spies under the guise of grocers may poison the sentinels – or fire may be set to stores of commercial articles. In view of avoiding the fear of pursuit, he may place a human body in the house he occupied, set fire to it and escape by breaking open some house-joints or a window, or through a tunnel – or disguise himself as a transporter of commodities like glass beads or pots – or as an ascetic after entering the residence of one – or as a forest recluse – or as someone suffering from a peculiar disease – or as a corpse – or as a widowed wife, following a corpse being carried away – or in the midst of carts and cart-drivers – and spies disguised as forest-people should misguide pursuers by pointing in an incorrect direction.
If he is closely followed, he may lead the pursuers to an ambush, or in the absence of an ambush leave gold or morsels of poisoned food by the sides of the road and take a different road. If he is captured, he should try to win over the pursuers by conciliation and other means, or poison them, or fight them with a concealed sword and the help of sentinels and previously-concealed spies. Or the king may accuse the enemy of the prince’s murder and attack them.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.17:33-61
Spies, disguised as hunters, may take a stand near the gate of the enemy’s fort to sell flesh, and make friendship with the sentinels at the gate. Having informed the enemy of the arrival of thieves on two or three occasions, they may prove themselves to be of reliable character and cause him to split his army into two divisions and to station them in two different parts of his territory. When his villages are being plundered or besieged, they may tell him that thieves are come very near, that the tumult is very great, and that a large army is required.
They may take the army supplied, and surrendering it to the commander laying waste the villages, return at night with a part of the commander’s army, and cry aloud at the gate of the fort that the thieves are slain, that the army has returned victorious, and that the gate may be opened. When the gate is opened by the watchmen under the enemy’s order or by others in confidence, they may strike the enemy with the help of the army.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3:40-43
Or a spy may tell a self-confident son of the chief of mercenary corporations: "You are the son of such and such a king and are kept here under the apprehension of danger from enemies." When he is deluded with this belief, the conqueror may help him with men and money and set him against the mercenary corporations. When the object in view is realised, the conqueror may also banish him.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 11.1:31
When the people of the enemy are suffering from famine and the oppression of thieves and wild tribes, the conqueror's spies should sow the seeds of dissension among them, saying: "Let us request the king for favour and go elsewhere if not favoured."
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.1:20
In order to separate citizens and country-people from traitors, the king should employ all the strategic means, except coercion. It is very difficult to inflict punishment on an assembly of influential men; and if inflicted at all, it may not produce the desired effect, but may give rise to undesirable consequences.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 9.6:2-4
When, after having put down the enemy, and after having grown in power, a friend becomes unsubmissive, the conqueror should cause the friend to incur the displeasure of a neighbour and of the king who is next to the neighbour.
Or the conqueror may employ a scion of the friend's family or an imprisoned prince to seize his lands; or the conqueror may so act that his friend, desirous of further help, may continue to be obedient.
The conqueror should never help his friend when the latter is deteriorating worse and worse; a politician should so keep his friend that the latter neither deteriorates nor grows in power.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.18:32-24
By way of collecting his wandering thoughts into a resolve, the king exhibits in his appearance and movements his inclination, anger, pleasure, sorrow, determination, fear, and change in the pairs of opposite feelings. These are the signs of the king’s satisfaction with a courtier (and the reverse indicates displeasure):
"By cognising wisdom in others, he is pleased; he is attentive to others’ speech; he gives a seat; he allows himself to be met privately; he is not suspicious; he enjoys conversation; he spontaneously looks to things without reminder; he is tolerant of rational argument; he issues orders with a smile; he touches with the hand; he does not laugh at what is commendable; he commends the qualities of another behind him; he consults the courtier during meals, sports and when in trouble; increasingly honours the courtier and his followers and averts his troubles; shares secrets with him.”
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.5:7-10
With a view to enhance the splendour of prostitutes holding the royal umbrella, golden pitcher, and fan, and attending upon the king seated on his royal litter, throne, or chariot, prostitutes shall be classified as of first, middle and highest rank according to their beauty and splendid jewellery; likewise their salary shall be fixed by thousands.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 2.27:4
Spies set up by foreign kings shall also be found out by local spies; spies by spies of like profession. It is the institutes of espionage, secret or avowed, that set spies in motion.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:24
Thus with regard to kings who are inimical, friendly, intermediate, of low rank, or neutral, and with regard to their eighteen government departments, spies shall be set in motion.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:20
Those whose sons and wives are kept (as hostages) shall be made recipients of salaries from two states and considered as under the mission of enemies. Purity of character of such persons shall be ascertained through persons of similar profession.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:19
When the information thus received from these three different sources is exactly of the same version, it shall be held reliable. If they frequently differ, the spies concerned shall either be punished in secret or dismissed.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:15-16
The immediate officers of the institutes of espionage shall by making use of signs or writing set their own spies in motion to ascertain the validity of the information. Neither the institutes of espionage nor the wandering spies shall know each other.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:11-12
If a mendicant woman is stopped at the entrance, the line of door-keepers., spies under the guise of father and mother, women artisans, court-bards, or prostitutes shall, under the pretext of taking in musical instruments, or through cipher-writing, or by means of signs, convey the information to its destined place.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:13
Spies of the institutes of espionage may suddenly go out under the pretext of long standing disease, or lunacy, or by setting fire to something or by administering poison to someone.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:14
The arrow shot by an archer may or may not kill a single man; but skilful intrigue devised by wise men can kill even those who are in the womb.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 10.6:51
Hence [the prince] shall be taught only of righteousness and of wealth, but not of unrighteousness and of non-wealth. Classmate spies shall be so courteous towards him as to say “thine are we.”
When under the temptation of youth, he turns his eye towards women, impure women under the disguise of Āryas shall, at night and in lonely places, terrify him; when fond of liquor, he shall be terrified by making him drink drugged liquor; when fond of gambling, he shall be terrified by spies under the disguise of fraudulent persons; when fond of hunting, he shall be terrified by spies under the disguise of highway robbers; and when desirous of attacking his own father, he shall, under the pretence of compliance, be gradually persuaded of the evil consequences of such attempts, by telling: a king is not made by a mere wish; failure of thy attempt will bring about thy own death; success makes thee fall into hell and causes the people to lament for thy father and destroy the only clod, i.e. thyself.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.17:33-39
Of troops which have lost their leader or which are not trained, those that have lost their leader may be taken to fight under the leadership of a different person but not the troops which are not trained.
Removal of vices and troubles, recruitment (of new men), keeping away from places of an enemy's ambush, and harmony among the officers of the army, are the means of protecting the army from troubles.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 8.5:17-18
In virtue of his power to uphold the observance of the respective duties of the four castes and of the four divisions of righteous life, and in virtue of his power to guard against the violation of Dharma, the king is the fountain of justice.
Sacred law, evidence, history, and government edicts are the four legs of Law. Of these four in order, the later supersedes the previously named.
Sacred law is eternal truth holding its sway over the world; evidence is in witnesses; history is what is found in the tradition of the people; government edicts are the orders pronounced by kings.
As the duty of a king consists in protecting his subjects with justice, its observance leads him to heaven. He who does not protect his people or upsets the social order wields his sceptre in vain. It is the sceptre and the sceptre alone which, only when exercised by the king with impartiality and in proportion to guilt either over his son or his enemy, maintains both this world and the next.
The king who administers justice in accordance with sacred law, evidence, history and edicts of kings which is the fourth will be able to conquer the whole world bounded by the four quarters.
Whenever there is disagreement between history and sacred law or between evidence and sacred law, then the matter shall be settled in accordance with sacred law. But whenever sacred law is conflict with rational law, then reason shall be held authoritative; for there the original text (on which the sacred law has been based) is not available.
Self-assertion on the part of either of the parties has often been found faulty. Examination, honesty, evidence and asseveration by oath – these alone can enable a man to win his cause.
Whenever by means of the deposition of witnesses, the statements of either of the parties are found contradictory, and whenever the cause of either of the parties is found by government spies to be false, then the decree shall be passed against that party
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.1:38-47
My preceptor holds that quarrels or assaults of a remote date shall not be complained of.
No, says Kautilya: there shall be no acquittal for an offender.
My preceptor thinks that he who is the first to complain of a quarrel wins, in as much as it is pain that drives one to law.
No, says Kautilya; whichever is lodged first, it is the evidence of witnesses that must be relied on.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3
Whether an accused is a stranger or a relative to a complainant, his defence witness shall, in the presence of the complainant, be asked as to the defendant’s country, caste, family, name, occupation, property, friends, and residence. The answers obtained shall be compared with the defendant’s own statements regarding the same. Then the defendant shall be asked as to not only the nature of the work he did during the day previous to the theft, but also the place where he spent the night till he was caught hold of. If his answers for these questions are attested to by reliable referees or witnesses, he shall be acquitted. Otherwise he shall be subjected to torture.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 4.8:1-4
Preceptors say that the word “command”, is applicable only to royal writs. Writs are of great importance to kings inasmuch as treaties and ultimate leading to war depend upon writs.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 2.10:1
Later commentary: As oral order sent through messengers is liable to misrepresentation, owing to misunderstanding, carelessness, and want of intelligence of the messengers, it is only writing on palm leaf that deserves the name of royal order
Peace, dependent upon honesty or oath is immutable both in this and the next world. It is for this world only that a security or an hostage is required for strengthening the agreement. Honest kings of old made their agreement of peace with this declaration: We have joined in peace.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.17:5-6
Those whose sons and wives are kept (as hostages) shall be made recipients of salaries from two states and considered as under the mission of enemies. Purity of character of such persons shall be ascertained through persons of similar profession.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:19
Obstructions to profit are: passion, anger, timidity, mercy, bashfulness, adopting a non-Ārya lifestyle, haughtiness, pity, desire for the afterlife, strict adherence to virtuous life, deception, neediness, envy, negligence of what is at hand, generosity, lack of faith, fear, inability to endure cold, heat, and rain, and faith in the auspiciousness of lunar days and stars.
Wealth will pass away from that childish man who inquires most after the stars; for wealth is the star for wealth; what will the stars do?
Capable men will certainly secure wealth at least after a hundred trials, and wealth is bound by wealth just as elephants are bound by counter-elephants.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 9.4:25-27
There can be no greater crime or sin than making wicked impressions on an innocent mind.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.17:30
When an unauthorised person examines (in court) on oath, impersonates a government servant, renders minor quadrupeds impotent, or performs a medical abortion on a female slave, he shall be punished with the first amercement.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.20:17
A fine of 100 paṇas shall be imposed in the following circumstances:
- When a person misappropriates the revenue he collects as the agent of a household
- When a person violates by force the chastity of a widow living independently
- When an outcaste person touches an Ārya woman
- When a person does not run to render help to another in danger, or runs without a cause (i.e. negligence)
- When a person entertains, in dinner dedicated to gods or ancestors, any Buddhists, Ājīvakas, Sudras or exiled persons.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 3.20:16
When, without making provision for the maintenance of his wife and sons, any person embraces ascetism, he shall be punished with the first amercement; likewise any person who converts a woman to ascetism. Whoever has passed the age of copulation may become an ascetic only after distributing the properties of his own acquisition (among his sons); otherwise, he will be punished.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 2.1:29-31
After making peace with the enemy, the conqueror may dismiss his own confidential ministers. They may request the enemy to reconcile them to their master. When the enemy sends a messenger for this purpose, the conqueror may rebuke him and say: “Thy master attempts to sow the seeds of dissension between myself and my ministers; so thou should not come here again.” Then one of the dismissed ministers may go over to the enemy, taking with him a band of spies, disaffected people, traitors, brave thieves, and wild tribes who make no distinction between a friend and a foe. Having secured the good graces of the enemy, the minister may propose to him the destruction of his officers, such as the boundary-guard, wild chief, and commander of his army, telling him: “These and other persons are in concert with your enemy.” Then these persons may be put to death under the unequivocal orders of the enemy.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3
A merchant spy may pretend to be in love with a maidservant of the queen, then abandon her. Another spy may then give that maidservant a drug, claiming it to be a love potion to regain her lover.
On her attaining success, that maidservant may inform the queen that the same drug may be applied to the king to secure his love. The drug will then be swapped for poison, and the king murdered.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 12.2:15-17
Painters, carpenters, heretics, actors, merchants, and other disguised spies belonging to the conqueror’s army may also reside inside the fort of the enemy. Spies, disguised as agriculturists, may supply them with weapons taken in carts loaded with firewood, grass, grains, and other commodities of commerce, or disguised as images and flags of gods. Then spies, disguised as priests, may announce to the enemy, blowing their conch-shells and beating their drums, that a besieging army, eager to destroy all, and armed with weapons, is coming closely behind them. Then in the ensuing tumult, they may surrender the fort gate and the towers of the fort to the army of the conqueror or disperse the enemy’s army and bring about his fall.
Or taking advantage of peace and friendship with the enemy, army and weapons may be collected inside the enemy’s fort by spies disguised as merchants, caravans, processions leading a bride, merchants selling horses, pedlars trading in miscellaneous articles, purchasers or sellers of grains, and as ascetics. These and others are the spies aiming at the life of a king.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.3
Reduction (of the enemy) must precede a siege.
Having well guarded his camp, transports, supplies and also the roads of communication, and having dug up a ditch and raised a rampart round his camp, he may vitiate the water in the ditches round the enemy’s fort, or empty the ditches of their water, or fill them with water if empty, and then he may assail the rampart and the parapets by making use of underground tunnels and iron rods. If the ditch is very deep, he may fill it up with soil. If it is defended by a number of men, he may destroy it by means of machines. Horse soldiers may force their passage through the gate into the fort and smite the enemy. Now and then, in the midst of tumult, he may offer terms to the enemy by taking recourse to one, two, three, or all of the strategic means.
Having captured the birds, such as the vulture, crow, naptr, beared vulture, parrot, mynah, and pigeon, which have their nests in the fort walls, and having tied to their tails inflammable powder, he may let them fly to the forts. If the camp is situated at a distance from the fort and is provided with an elevated post for archers and their flags, then the enemy’s fort may be set on Are. Spies, living as watchmen of the fort, may tie inflammable powder to the tails of mongooses, monkeys, cats and dogs, and let them go over the thatched roofs of the houses. A splinter of fire kept in the body of a dried fish may be caused to be carried off by a monkey, or a crow, or any other bird (to the thatched roofs of the houses).
When the conqueror thinks: “I am well provided with all necessary means and with workmen, whereas my enemy is diseased, with officers proved to be impure under temptations, with unfinished forts and deficient stores, allied with no friends, or with friends inimical at heart,” then he should consider it as an opportune moment to take up arms and storm the fort.
When fire, accidental or intentionally kindled, breaks out; when the enemy’s people are engaged in a sacrificial performance, or in witnessing spectacles or the troops, or in quarrel due to the drinking of liquor; or when the enemy’s army is too much tired by daily engagements in battles and is reduced in strength in consequence of the slaughter of a number of its men in a number of battles; when the enemy’s people wearied from sleeplessness have fallen asleep; or on the occasion of a cloudy day of floods, or of a thick fog or snow, general assault should be made.
Or having concealed himself in a forest after abandoning the camp, the conqueror may strike the enemy when the latter comes out.
Either a conquered enemy or the chief of a wild tribe (in conspiracy with the conqueror) may inform the besieged: “With the intention of escaping from a disease, or from the attack in his weak point by his enemy in the rear, or from a rebellion in his army, the conqueror seems to be thinking of going elsewhere, abandoning the siege.” When the enemy is made to believe this, the conqueror may set fire to his camp and retire. Then the enemy coming out may be hemmed... as before.
Or a pretending ally of the enemy may send a messenger to the enemy, asking him: “Come out to smite the conqueror already struck by me.” When he does so, he may be hemmed... as before.
Or a pretending ally of the enemy may send information to the besieged: “I am going to strike the besieging camp at such a time and place; then you should also fight along with me.” When the enemy does so, or when he comes out of his fort after witnessing the tumult and uproar of the besieging army in danger, he may be slain as before.
Or a friend or a wild chief in friendship with the enemy may be induced and encouraged to seize the land of the enemy when the latter is besieged by the conqueror. When accordingly any one of them attempts to seize the enemy’s territory, the enemy’s people or the leaders of the enemy’s traitors may be employed to murder him (the friend or the wild chief); or the conqueror himself may administer poison to him. Then another pretending friend may inform the enemy that the murdered person was a fratricide (as he attempted to seize the territory of his friend in troubles). After strengthening his intimacy with the enemy, the pretending friend may sow the seeds of dissension between the enemy and his officers and have the latter hanged. Causing the peaceful people of the enemy to rebel, he may put them down, unknown to the enemy. Then having taken with him a portion of his army composed of furious wild tribes, he may enter the enemy’s fort and allow it to be captured by the conqueror. Or traitors, enemies, wild tribes and other persons who have deserted the enemy, may, under the plea of having been reconciled, honoured and rewarded, go back to the enemy and allow the fort to be captured by the conqueror.
When a fort can be captured by other means, no attempt should be made to set fire to it; for fire cannot be trusted; it not only offends gods, but also destroys the people, grains, cattle, gold, raw materials and the like. Also the acquisition of a fort with its property all destroyed is a source of further loss.
A king, pretending to be the enemy’s chief friend or ally, may make the friendship closer with the besieged, and send a messenger to say: “This is thy weak point; these are thy internal enemies; that is the weak point of the besieger; and this person (who, deserting the conqueror, is now coming to thee) is thy partisan.” When this partisan is returning with another messenger from the enemy, the conqueror should catch hold of him, and having published the partisan’s guilt, should banish him, and retire from the siege operations. Then the pretending friend may tell the besieged: “Gome out to help me, or let us combine and strike the besieger.” Accordingly, when the enemy comes out, he may be hemmed between the two forces (the conqueror’s force and the pretending friend’s force) and killed or captured alive to distribute his territory (between the conqueror and the friend). His capital city may be razed to the ground; and the flower of his army be made to come out and be destroyed.
Having captured the fort or having returned to the camp after its capture, he should give quarter to those of the enemy’s army who, whether as lying prostrate in the field, or as standing with their back turned to the conqueror, or with their hair dishevelled, with their weapons thrown down or with their body disfigured and shivering under fear, surrender themselves. After the captured fort is cleared of the enemy’s partisans and is well guarded by the conqueror’s men, both within and without, he should make his victorious entry into it.
Having thus seized the territory of the enemy close to his country, the conqueror should direct his attention to that of the Madhyama king; this being taken, he should catch hold of that of the neutral king. This is the first way to conquer the world. In the absence of the Madhyama and neutral kings, he should, in virtue of his own excellent qualities, win the hearts of his enemy’s subjects, and then direct his attention to other remote enemies. This is the second way. In the absence of a Circle of States (to be conquered), he should conquer his friend or his enemy by hemming each between his own force and that of his enemy or that of his friend respectively. This is the third way. Or he may first put down an almost invincible immediate enemy. Having doubled his power by this victory, he may go against a second enemy: having trebled his power by this victory, he may attack a third. This is the fourth way to conquer the world. Having conquered the earth with its people of distinct castes and divisions of religious life, he should enjoy it by governing it in accordance with the duties prescribed to kings.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.4
Political rivals may be so employed as fine and tax collectors so as to incur the displeasure of the people.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.13:15-20
Those chiefs whose inimical design has been found out by spies supporting the king's cause shall, in view of affording opportunity to detect the spies of foreign kings, be made to live on the boundaries of the state.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.12:25
If the enemy desires to make peace on condition of the weak king surrendering a portion of this army, he may give the enemy such of his elephants and cavalry as are uncontrollable or as are provided with poison; if the enemy desires to make peace on condition of his surrendering his chief men, he may send over to the enemy such portion of his army as is full of traitors, enemies and wild tribes under the command of a trusted officer, so that both his enemy and his own undesirable army may perish.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 12.1:24-28
When a king thinks that, “Though successful, my ally may cause my army to move in an enemy's territory or in wild tracts, and during unfavourable seasons and thereby he may render it useless to me,” then under the excuse of having to employ his army otherwise, he may help his ally in any other way; but when he is obliged to lend his army, he may send that kind of his army, which is used to the weather of the time of operation, under the condition of employing it till the completion of the work, and of protecting it from dangers.
When the ally has finished his work, he should, under some excuse, try to get back his army or he may send to his ally that army which is composed of traitors, enemies, and wild tribes; or having made peace with the ally's assailable enemy, he may deceive the ally.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.8:28-33
When the conqueror is desirous of seizing an enemy’s village, he should infuse enthusiastic spirit among his own men and frighten his enemy’s people by giving publicity to his power of omniscience and close association with gods.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.1:1
Having acquired a new territory, he should cover the enemy's vices with his own virtues, and the enemy's virtues by doubling his own virtues, by strict observance of his own duties, by attending to his works, by bestowing rewards, by remitting taxes, by giving gifts, and by bestowing honours.
He should follow the friends and leaders of the people.
He should give rewards, as promised, to those who deserted the enemy for his cause; he should also offer rewards to them as often as they render help to him; for whoever fails to fullfil his promises becomes untrustworthy both to his own and his enemy's people.
Whoever acts against the will of the people will also become unreliable. He should adopt the same mode of life, the same dress, language, and customs as those of the people. He should follow the people in their faith with which they celebrate their national, religious and congregational festivals or amusements.
His spies should often bring home to the mind of the leaders of provinces, villages, castes, and corporations the hurt inflicted on the enemies in contrast with the high esteem and favour with which they are treated by the conqueror, who finds his own prosperity in theirs. He should please them by giving gifts, remitting taxes, and providing for their security.
He should always hold righteous life in high esteem. Learned men, orators, charitable and brave persons should be favoured with gifts of land and money and with remission of taxes.
He should release all the prisoners, and afford help to miserable, helpless, and diseased persons. He should prohibit the slaughter of animals for half a month during the period of Cháturmásya (from July to September), for four nights during the full moon, and for a night on the day of the birth-star of the conqueror or of the national star.
He should also prohibit the slaughter of females and young ones (yonibálavadham) as well as castration. Having abolished those customs or transactions which he might consider either as injurious to the growth of his revenue and army or as unrighteous, he should establish righteous transactions.
He should exile born thieves, barbarians and traitors to remote areas, as with the captured enemy. Those who were opposed to him, but are convinced of their own fall with that of their master, should be pacified. If a relative of the enemy takes shelter in a wild tract on the border and harasses him, he should be provided with a sterile portion of territory or with one fourth of a fertile tract, on the condition of supplying the conqueror a fixed amount of money and troops, in raising which he will incur the displeasure of the people and be destroyed by them.
He should initiate the observance of all those customs, which, though righteous and practised by others, are not observed in his own country, and give no room for the practice of whatever is unrighteous, though observed by others.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 13.5
"Not so," says Bháradvája, "the king lying on his death-bed, the minister may set up the princes and other chiefs of the royal family against one another or against other chiefs. Whoever attacks the kingdom may be put to death under the plea of disturbance and annoyance to the people; or having secretly punished the chief rebels of the royal family and brought them under his control, the minister shall himself take possession of the kingdom, for on account of the kingdom the father hates his sons, and sons their father; why then should the minister who is the sole prop of the kingdom (be an exception to it)? There-fore he shall never discard what has, of its own accord, fallen into his hands; for it is a general talk among the people that a woman making love of her own accord will, when discarded, curse the man. * "An opportunity will only once offer itself to a man who is waiting for it, and will not come a second time when he may be desirous of accomplishing his work."
"But it is," says Kautilya, "unrighteous to do an act which excites popular fury; nor is it an accepted rule. He shall, therefore, install in the kingdom such a son of the king as is possessed of amiable qualities. In the absence of a prince of good character, he may place before himself a wicked prince, or a princess, or the pregnant queen, and tell the other ministers:--„This is your caste (kshepa); look to the father of this (boy) as well as to your own valour and descent; this (boy) is merely a flag; and yourselves are the lords; pray, how shall I act‟?"
As he is saying this, others, taken in confidence before, shall say in reply:--"Who else than the one of your lead is capable of protecting the mass of the people of the four castes of the king" ? Then the other ministers will certainly agree to it.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.6:24-35
When wealth and honour are discontinued, such a king may be abandoned; or by recognising the character of the king as well as his own defects, he may rectify himself; or he may seek the patronage of one of the best friends of the king.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.5:12-15
The king may in great emergencies demand one-third or one-fourth in taxes from the inhabitants of fertile country, but not of those who inhabit tracts of middle or low quality or forest tribes, nor people employed in the construction of infrastructure or the colonisation of wastelands, nor of learned Brāhmaṇas – these properties he may only purchase at a favourable compensation.
(…) Such demands will never be done repeatedly. In lieu of such demands, the collector general shall seek subscriptions from citizens and country people alike under false pretences of carrying some kind of business. Persons taken in concert shall publicly pay handsome donations and with this example, the king may demand of others among his subjects. Spies posing as citizens shall revile those who pay less. Wealthy persons may be requested to give as much of their gold as they can. Those who, of their own accord or with the intention of doing good, offer their wealth to the king shall be honoured with a rank in the court, an umbrella, or a turban or some ornaments in return for their gold.
(…) Or spies may call upon spectators to see a serpent with innumerable heads in a well connected with a subterranean passage and collect fees from them for the sight. Or they may place in a borehole made in the body of an image of a serpent, or in a hole in the corner of a temple, or in the hollow of an ant-hill, a cobra, which is, by diet, rendered unconscious, and call upon credulous spectators to see it (on payment of a certain amount of fee). As to persons who are not by nature credulous, spies may sprinkle over or give a drink of, such sacred water as is mixed with anasthetic ingredients and attribute their insensibility to the curse of gods. Or by causing an outcast person to be bitten by a cobra, spies may collect revenue under the pretext of undertaking remedial measures against ominous phenomena.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 5.2
Either by inducing immigration or by causing the densely-populated centres of his own kingdom to send forth the surplus population, the king may construct settlements either on new sites or on old ruins. In the centre of every eight hundred settlements, in the centre of every four hundred settlements, in the centre of every ten settlements, and in the extremities of the kingdom, fortresses of respective sizes will be constructed.
Brāhmaṇas shall be granted lands for yielding produce and exempted from taxes; government agents shall be endowed with lands but not the right to sell or mortgage them; lands prepared for cultivation shall be granted to tax-payers only with no strings attached. Unprepared land will not be expropriated from those who are preparing them from cultivation, but may be confiscated from those not preparing them from cultivation.
[The king] shall facilitate mining and manufactories, exploit timber and elephant forests, offer facilities for cattle-breeding and commerce, construct roads and canals for traffic, and set up market cities. He may construct reservoirs himself, or facilitate private builders with roads, sites, timber and other necessary infrastructure; likewise for the construction of religious sites and of groves.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 2.1:1-21
My teacher holds that that officer who spends too much and brings in little revenue eats it up; while he who brings in more than he spends, as well as the officer who brings in as much as he spends does not eat up the revenue. But Kautilya holds that cases of embezzlement or no embezzlement can be ascertained through spies alone.
Whoever lessens the revenue eats the king's wealth. If owing to inadvertence he causes diminution in revenue, he shall be compelled to make good the loss; he shall be punished in proportion to the value of the work done, the number of days taken, the amount of capital spent, and the amount of daily wages paid.
Whoever doubles the revenue eats into the vitality of the country. If he brings in double the amount to the king, he shall, if the offence is small, be warned not to repeat the same; but if the offence be grave he should proportionally be punished.
Hence the chief officer of each department shall thoroughly scrutinise the real amount of the work done, the receipts realised from, and the expenditure incurred in that departmental work both in detail and in the aggregate.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 2.9:11-19
Which is better, scattered troops, or an unsubmissive standing army? My teacher says that scattered troops can be collected in time as they are of submissive nature.
Not so, says Kautilya: an unsubmissive standing army is better as it can be made submissive by conciliation and other strategic means; but it is not so easy to collect in time scattered troops as they are engaged in their individual avocations.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.9:21-25
Which is better of the two: a friend of long-standing, but unsubmissive nature, or a temporary friend of submissive nature, both being acquired by affording relief from their respective troubles? My teacher says that a long-standing friend of unsubmissive nature is better inasmuch as such a friend, though not helpful, will not create harm.
Not so, says Kautilya: a temporary friend of submissive nature is better; for such a friend will be a true friend so long as he is helpful; for the real characteristic of friendship lies in giving help.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.9:9-12
My preceptor says that of land-routes, that which leads to the Himalayas is better than that which leads to the south.
Not so, says Kautilya, for with the exception of blankets, skins, and horses, other articles of merchandise such as, conch-shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls and gold are available in plenty in the south.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.12:22-24
This explains the destruction of enemies and wild tribes:
- When an enemy in the rear and in the front, and an assailable enemy to be marched against happen together then the conqueror should adopt the following policy:
- The rear-enemy will usually lead the conqueror's frontal enemy to attack the conqueror's friend; then having set the enemy of the rear-enemy against the rear-enemy's ally
- and, having caused war between them, the conqueror should frustrate the rear-enemy's designs; likewise he should provoke hostilities between, the allies of the enemy of the rear-enemy and of the rear-enemy;
- he should also keep his frontal enemy's friend engaged in war with his own friend
- and with the help of his friend's friend, he should avert the attack, threatened by the friend of his enemy's friend;
- he should, with his friend's help, hold his rear-enemy at bay; and with the help of his friend's friend, he should prevent his rear-enemy attacking the enemy of the rear-enemy
- thus the conqueror should, through the aid of his friends, bring the Circle of States under his own sway both in his rear and front;
- he should send messengers and spies to reside in each of the states composing the Circle and having again and again destroyed the strength of his enemies he should keep his counsels concealed, being friendly with his friends;
- the works of him whose counsels are not kept concealed, will, though they may prosper for a time, perish as undoubtedly as a broken raft on the sea.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 7.13:36-44
My teacher says that a blind king, i.e., a king who is not possessed of an eye in sciences, is indiscriminate in doing works, very obstinate, and is led by others; such a king destroys the kingdom by his own maladministration. But an erring king can be easily brought round when and where his mind goes astray from the procedure laid down in sciences.
No, says Kautilya, a blind king can be made by his supporters to adhere to whatever line of policy he ought to. But an erring king who is bent upon doing what is against science, brings about destruction to himself and his kingdom by maladministration.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 8.2:9-12
My teacher says that of a favourite wife and a prince, the prince causes oppression by showing indulgence to his followers, by seizing and begging, and by obstructing the work in manufactories whereas the favourite wife is addicted to her amorous sports.
No, says Kautilya, it is possible to prevent through the minister and the priest, the oppression caused by the prince, but not the oppression caused by the favourite wife, since she is usually stubborn and keeps company with wicked persons.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 8.4:24-26
In the happiness of his subjects lies his happiness; in their welfare his welfare; whatever pleases himself he shall not consider as good, but whatever pleases his subjects he shall consider as good.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.19:34
When in the interior of the harem, the king shall see the queen only when her personal purity is vouchsafed by an old maid-servant. He shall not touch any woman (unless he is apprised of her personal purity); for hidden in the queen's chamber, his own brother slew king Bhadrasena; hiding himself under the bed of his mother, the son killed king Kárusa; mixing fried rice with poison, as though with honey, his own queen poisoned Kásirája; with an anklet painted with poison, his own queen killed Vairantya; with a gem of her zone bedaubed with poison, his own queen killed Sauvíra; with a looking glass painted with poison, his own queen killed Jálútha; and with a weapon hidden under her tuft of hair, his own queen slew Vidúratha. Hence the king shall always be careful to avoid such lurking dangers. He shall keep away his wives from the society of ascetics with shaved head or braided hair, of buffoons, and of outside servant girls. Nor shall women of high birth have occasion to see his wives except appointed midwives.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.20:14-19
In a well-guarded locality, the head-cook shall supervise the preparation of varieties of relishing dishes. The king shall partake of such fresh dishes after making an oblation out of them first to the fire and then to birds.
When the flame and the smoke turn blue and crackle, and when birds (that eat the oblation) die, presence of poison (in the dish) shall be inferred. When the vapour arising from cooked rice possesses the colour of the neck of a peacock, and appears chill as if suddenly cooled, when vegetables possess an unnatural colour, and are watery and hardened, and appear to have suddenly turned dry, being possessed of broken layers of blackish foam, and being devoid of smell, touch and taste natural to them; when utensils reflect light either more or less than usual, and are covered with a layer of foam at their edges; when any liquid preparation possesses streaks on its surface; when milk bears a bluish streak in the centre of its surface; when liquor and water possess reddish streaks; when curd is marked with black and dark streaks, and honey with white streaks; when watery things appear parched as if overcooked and look blue and swollen; when dry things have shrank and changed in their colour; when hard things appear soft, and soft things hard; when minute animalculae die in the vicinity of the dishes; when carpets and curtains possess blackish circular spots, with their threads and hair fallen off; when metallic vessels set with gems appear tarnished as though by roasting, and have lost their polish, colour, shine, and softness of touch, presence of poison shall be inferred.
As to the person who has administered poison, the marks are parched and dry mouth; hesitation in speaking; heavy perspiration; yawning; too much bodily tremor; frequent tumbling; evasion of speech; carelessness in work; and unwillingness to keep to the place assigned to him.
Hence physicians and experts capable of detecting poison shall ever attend upon the king.
Having taken out from the store-room of medicines that medicine the purity of which has been proved by experiment, and having himself together with the decoctioner and the purveyor tasted it, the physician shall hand over the medicine to the king. The same rule shall apply to liquor and other beverages.
—Kautilya, in the Arthaśāstra, 1.21:4-10
